Read the passage given below and then answer the questions given below the…
2026
Read the passage given below and then answer the questions given below the passage. Some words may be highlighted for your attention. Pay careful attention.
Economic norms theory links economic conditions with institutions of governance and conflict, distinguishing personal clientelist economies from impersonal market-oriented ones, identifying the latter with permanent peace within and between nations.
Through most of human history societies have been based on personal relations: individuals in groups know each other and exchange favors. Today in most lower-income societies hierarchies of groups distribute wealth based on personal relationships among group leaders, a process often linked with clientelism and corruption. Michael Mousseau argues that in this kind of socio-economy conflict is always present, latent or overt, because individuals depend on their groups for physical and economic security and are thus loyal to their groups rather than their states, and because groups are in a constant state of conflict over access to state coffers. Through processes of bounded rationality, people are conditioned towards strong in-group identities and are easily swayed to fear outsiders, psychological predispositions that make possible sectarian violence, genocide, and terrorism.
Market-oriented socio-economies are integrated not with personal ties but the impersonal force of the market where most individuals are economically dependent on trusting strangers in contracts enforced by the state. This creates loyalty to a state that enforces the rule of law and contracts impartially and reliably and provides equal protection in the freedom to contract – that is, liberal democracy. Wars cannot happen within or between nations with market-integrated economies because war requires the harming of others, and in these kinds of economies everyone is always economically better off when others in the market are also better off, not worse off. Rather than fight, citizens in market-oriented socio-economies care deeply about everyone's rights and welfare, so they demand economic growth at home and economic cooperation and human rights abroad. In fact, nations with market-oriented socio-economies tend to agree on global issues and not a single fatality has occurred in any dispute between them.
Economic norms theory should not be confused with classical liberal theory. The latter assumes that markets are natural and that freer markets promote wealth. In contrast, Economic norms theory shows how market-contracting is a learned norm, and state spending, regulation, and redistribution are necessary to ensure that almost everyone can participate in the "social market" economy, which is in everyone's interests. One proposed mechanism for world peace involves consumer purchasing of renewable and equitable local food and power sources involving artificial photosynthesis ushering in a period of social and ecological harmony known as the Sustainocene.
Why does Michael Mousseau argue that in personal clientelist socio-economy conflict is always present?
- A.
because this kind of economy is mean to the world
- B.
because citizens care a lot about each other
- C.
because individuals create loyalty towards state
- D.
because individuals are loyal to their groups and in conflict with state
Attempted by 1 students.
Show answer & explanation
Correct answer: D
Concept: A reason question on a comparative passage requires matching the option to the exact causal claim the passage makes about the specific case asked about, not to a claim made about the passage's contrasting case. Passage authors often build wrong options by lifting a true-sounding detail from the OTHER case being contrasted.
Application: The passage's second paragraph gives the reason directly: in a personal clientelist socio-economy, individuals depend on their groups for physical and economic security, so they are loyal to their groups rather than their states, and the groups themselves stay in constant conflict over access to state coffers. That is exactly the pairing of group loyalty and group-level conflict described in the option that matches the passage.
Contrast with the near-miss options: The passage's third paragraph describes the contrasting, market-oriented socio-economy: there, impersonal market contracting creates loyalty to the state, and citizens care deeply about everyone's rights and welfare. Two of the options reproduce these market-economy traits word for word, which makes them read plausibly, but they answer the wrong question (about the wrong economy type). One option offers only a vague, unsupported moral judgment with no anchor anywhere in the passage.
So the passage-supported reason is that individuals are loyal to their groups, while the groups themselves remain in conflict over access to state resources.